Martin, D. A. et al. Overestimating outsourced biodiversity loss may misguide policy. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-026-10370-5 (2026).
Hoang, N. T. & Kanemoto, K. Mapping the deforestation footprint of nations reveals growing threat to tropical forests. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 5, 845–853 (2021).
Wiebe, R. A. & Wilcove, D. S. Global biodiversity loss from outsourced deforestation. Nature 639, 389–394 (2025).
Curtis, P. G. et al. Classifying drivers of global forest loss. Science 361, 1108–1111 (2018).
Sims, M. J. et al. Global drivers of forest loss at 1 km resolution. Environ. Res. Lett. 20, 074027 (2025).
Renier, C. et al. Direct and indirect deforestation for cocoa in the tropical moist forests of Ghana. Environ. Res. Food Syst. 2, 025006 (2025).
FAOSTAT: Crops and Livestock Products (FAO, 2025); https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL.
Hending, D. et al. Conservation value of vanilla agroecosystems for vertebrate diversity in north-east Madagascar. Oryx 57, 118–128 (2022).
Watts, J. Madagascar’s vanilla wars: prized spice drives death and deforestation. The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/mar/31/madagascars-vanilla-wars-prized-spice-drives-death-and-deforestation (2018).
Jessy, M. D. et al. Possibilities of diverse rubber based agroforestry systems for smallholdings in India. Agrofor. Syst. 91, 515–526 (2017).
Mariel, J. et al. From shifting rice cultivation (tavy) to agroforestry systems: a century of changing land use on the east coast of Madagascar. Agrofor. Syst. 97, 415–431 (2022).
Martin, D. A. et al. Land-use trajectories for sustainable land system transformations: Identifying leverage points in a global biodiversity hotspot. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119, e2107747119 (2022).
Hending, D. et al. Floral species richness, structural diversity and conservation value of vanilla agroecosystems in Madagascar. Afr. J. Ecol. 58, 100–111 (2019).
Martin, D. A. et al. Bird diversity and endemism along a land-use gradient in Madagascar: the conservation value of vanilla agroforests. Biotropica 53, 179–190 (2020).
Wurz, A. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in a Tropical Smallholder Landscape in Madagascar. PhD thesis, Univ. of Goettingen (2023).
Llopis, J. C. et al. Effects of protected area establishment and cash crop price dynamics on land use transitions 1990-2017 in north-eastern Madagascar. J. Land Use Sci. 14, 52–80 (2019).